![]() Sociologists tend to measure upward mobility in terms of occupational or class “origins ” and “destinations. Second, these studies also tend to ignore racial differences in upward mobility, which scholars such as Dalton Conley and Tom Hertz have pointed out. First, focusing on income or earnings ignores other aspects of economic success, such as educational attainment and occupational prestige or status. While these studies of intergenerational income mobility are informative, they are also limited in a few respects. On the other hand, a weak association indicates a high rate of upward mobility because children are not limited in their future economic success by the success of their parents. A strong association between fathers ’ and sons ’ income indicates a low rate of upward mobility. Economists often measure the degree of mobility as the strength of the association between the income or earnings of fathers and their sons. Several common measures of economic status include: individual earnings, family income, wealth, educational attainment, occupational status or prestige, and social class. In order to measure upward mobility, the researcher must decide on a measure of economic well-being or status. Social scientists measure upward mobility in surveys in a variety of ways. In addition, a person may go back to school in midcareer to earn a college or graduate degree in order to move into a higher-status occupation, such as a professional or manager. ![]() For example, someone may start out working in a low-paying job and then move up into a higher-paying job within the same company after a few years. People also often experience upward mobility over the course of their own careers, which is known as intragenerational mobility. Upward mobility across generations, or intergenerational mobility, is commonly studied and often used as an indicator of a society ’s openness or fluidity. There are two general types of upward mobility: intragenerational and intergenerational mobility. For example, children from working-class parents are likely to end up in working-class occupations themselves, and one ’s educational attainment is determined in large part by the educational achievements of one ’s parents. In closed societies, on the other hand, there is little or no upward mobility. Success in this type of society is determined by individual achievement rather than family background. In a meritocratic or “open ” society, all that is required for upward mobility is an education and hard work. Social scientists study the rates of upward mobility across different groups and societies because upward mobility is associated with notions of meritocracy and equality of opportunity. Upward mobility is the experience of moving up into a more privileged economic position in society.
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